Preservation of Native American music traditions has proved to be extremely difficult for a myriad of reasons. First and foremost, of course, this is due in large part to the needlessly cruel behavior of the U.S. government.
Interactions between Native Americans and European settlers often resulted in the complete destruction of music considered "pagan" by the Europeans. Native peoples were continuously removed and relocated from their traditional homelands, losing many of their mythologies and ancient music traditions in the process. Tribal elders and holy men were usually the first to be killed, as Native American religious beliefs, history and music were never recorded down but were usually related orally by the elders. Furthermore, The government placed a ban on traditional cultural practices such as drum circle dances, and punished those who broke this "law" with imprisonment and, most commonly, death.
This long history of oppression and genocide led many Native peoples to become extremely defensive about their music. As a result, many of the traditions once considered 'secular' and folk, have now been safeguarded as 'sacred', and are practiced only during ceremonies open to tribal members alone.
II. Sacred and Secular Music Traditions of Native America
Native American music was largely inseparable from religious life. Traditionally, Native peoples believed that music a a gift from the creator - that music emanated from the universe and not the musician. Songs and melodies were not thought of as composed by the musician, but rather 'caught' by the musician. Musicians, therefore, did not gain fame for their compositions, nor did they want it; Music was a living thing and all credit for it went to the Creator, or to the individual tribes' music deities.
The most commonly recognized of these deities, is Kokopelli:
Depicted across the southwest in petroglyphs dating back to 750 A.D, Kokopelli is one of the oldest deities on the continent. It is unknown where he originated, but he was quite popular with the Ancient Pueblo peoples, including the Anasazi and Hopi tribes. Today, his image adorns countless pieces of pottery, clothes and art. He was thought of as a sort of trickster god, whose music had the capability of joing the natural and supernatural worlds.
This joinging was a defining characteristic of sacred Native American music ceremonies. Although not much is known about these ceremonies, as they are kept sacred and not for the public, it is known that the primary functions of these ceremonies were healing, to bring success in war and huinting and to recount history and creation myths. They would normally consist of drum circles accompanied by elaborate dances, with an elder or holy man singing or speaking the stories and blessings.
However, the most sacred of these songs had strictly symbolic meanings, rather than literal. Many were sung in vocables, or a string of syllables that held religious significance but were not written in the tribes' native tongue. This practice has been integrated into secular folk music over time, and continues to be a popular form of musical expression.
Apart from it's use in ceremonial ritual, music was a very important part of daily life as well. Folk songs were used to accompany every-day activites, such as courtship, play, meditation and work. Individual tribes developed very unique ways of playing and vocalising music, such as the Inuit peoples of the Northwest coast and arctic Canada.
The Inuit are known for their peculiar form of Throat Singing, in which the singers manipulate the resonances created as air travells from the lungs, past the vocal folds, and out the lips to produce melody. Normally, this is performed by two females, who sit or stand face to face and create rythmic patterns using each others' mouths as resonators. Below is an example of Inuit Throat Singing:
Circle Dances were an extremely popular form of secular music, with dances being developed for nearly every aspect of human and animal life. Below is a Sun Dance, meant to celebrate the sun's daily journey through the sky:
The most commonly recognized of these deities, is Kokopelli:
Depicted across the southwest in petroglyphs dating back to 750 A.D, Kokopelli is one of the oldest deities on the continent. It is unknown where he originated, but he was quite popular with the Ancient Pueblo peoples, including the Anasazi and Hopi tribes. Today, his image adorns countless pieces of pottery, clothes and art. He was thought of as a sort of trickster god, whose music had the capability of joing the natural and supernatural worlds.
This joinging was a defining characteristic of sacred Native American music ceremonies. Although not much is known about these ceremonies, as they are kept sacred and not for the public, it is known that the primary functions of these ceremonies were healing, to bring success in war and huinting and to recount history and creation myths. They would normally consist of drum circles accompanied by elaborate dances, with an elder or holy man singing or speaking the stories and blessings.
However, the most sacred of these songs had strictly symbolic meanings, rather than literal. Many were sung in vocables, or a string of syllables that held religious significance but were not written in the tribes' native tongue. This practice has been integrated into secular folk music over time, and continues to be a popular form of musical expression.
Apart from it's use in ceremonial ritual, music was a very important part of daily life as well. Folk songs were used to accompany every-day activites, such as courtship, play, meditation and work. Individual tribes developed very unique ways of playing and vocalising music, such as the Inuit peoples of the Northwest coast and arctic Canada.
The Inuit are known for their peculiar form of Throat Singing, in which the singers manipulate the resonances created as air travells from the lungs, past the vocal folds, and out the lips to produce melody. Normally, this is performed by two females, who sit or stand face to face and create rythmic patterns using each others' mouths as resonators. Below is an example of Inuit Throat Singing:
Circle Dances were an extremely popular form of secular music, with dances being developed for nearly every aspect of human and animal life. Below is a Sun Dance, meant to celebrate the sun's daily journey through the sky:
III. Traditional Instruments of Native America
The Native American Flute has gained worldwide fame in recent years for it's distinctive sound and prominent use in New Age and World Music recordings. However, it's traditional use was originally highly personal and meditative. It was played largely without accompaniment during courtship, healing, and spiritual rituals. A common folk tale relates that the discovery of the flute occurred when people noticed the beautiful sound of the wind blowing through holes in tree branches that had been put there by the woodpecker.
Evidence suggests that the flute was originally brought to North America from Mesoamerica by way of the Ancient Pueblos. While western tribes did not take to the flute initially, Plains Indians and Eastern Woodlands tribes became proficient in it's art, and integrated it into their own musical traditions. Thus, the two major types of Native American flute are the the plains flute and woodlands flute, each with slightly different construction.
The distinguishing features of the plains flute are the external blocks used for making the whistle and the inclusion of two sound chambers:
The woodlands flute differs slightly in that the "flue" or channel between the two sound chambers is carved into the flute itself, whereas the channel on the plains flute is carved into the block, or whistle. Also, plains flutes have curved, tapered mouthpieces that fit between the lips, while woodlands flutes have large blunted mouthpieces that fit against the lips:
Native American flutes are made from a wide variety of woods. Juniper, Redwood and Cedar are popular for the nice aroma they provide. Softwoods are generally preferred by most players because of the softer tones they produce. Harder woods are also appreciated for their crisp, clear richness of sound.
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The drum is of huge importance to traditional Native American music. With the obvious exception of vocals, it is the most universally used instrument, being the centerpiece of both sacred and secular music traditions.For powwow drums, the construction is similar in most tribes: a wooden frame or a carved and hollowed-out log, with rawhide buckskin or elk skin stretched out across the opening by sinew thongs:
Traditionally American Indian drums are large, two to three feet in diameter, and they are played communally by groups of singers who sit around them in a circle:
For smaller single-sided hand drums, a thinner frame or shell is used, and a rawhide surface is strung onto only one side, with lacing across the other:
Other types include the Iroquois water drum, a small, cup shaped vessel with water inside, and a moistened, tanned hide stretched across the top opening. The wetness and tightness of the tanned hide produce changes in pitch as the water drum is played over time:
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Percussive instruments were also very commonly used. Rattles were the most popular, and were made from materials including bull horns:
And turtle shells:
Stringed instruments were extremely rare, the "Apache Violin", or Tsii'edo'a'tl (wood that sings) being the unique to the Southwest:
IV. The Ghost Dance and Evolution of Pan-Tribalism
By the late 1800's, due to the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the Trail of Tears in 1838 and continued forced relocation and cultural genocide by the U.S Government, many Native American tribes east of the Mississippi had lost most of their musical traditions. The increasingly oppressive treatment by the government and declining quality of life led to a general loss of hope. The need for a catalyst that would present a rallying point for the different tribes became great. Jack Wilson (above), known as Wovoka to his Paiute tribe in northern Nevada, provided this catalyst with the Ghost Dance.
Jack Wilson (1856-1932), became a prophet of peace and tribal unity when he claimed to have been given a sacred dance by God during a vision he had on January 1st, 1889. According to Wilson himself, his vision concerned the resurrection of dead Native American warriors killed in the struggles against white settlers and a period of peace and pan-tribal unity in which the workings of the white man would be erased from the land. To bring this about, Wilson was given the Ghost Dance, and told to spread it to all tribes. Essentially, the Ghost Dance was to be performed pan-tribally for five consecutive days, afterward bringing about the prophecies given to Wilson.
The Ghost Dance movement quickly spread throughout the west. It became extremely popular among many tribes, the Sioux in particular. Below is a Sioux Ghost Dance, filmed in 1894:
The movement slowly died out after the battle at Wounded Knee, in which the Ghost Dance played a pivotal role. However, the pan-tribal ideals it represented continued, having been rooted in much older Native American traditions such as the Round Dance and Peyote Songs, which have recently been popularized by their use in the Native American Church.
In 1934, federal bans on Native American music and dance were lifted, clearing the way for the reemergence of Native musical traditions and the birth of the inter-tribal Powwow.
Powwows are large cultural gatherings centered around Native music, dance, food, and spirituality. The purpose of the gatherings was two-fold; On the one hand, it provided an environment that could foster and recreate forgotten musical traditions, while ensuring that the traditions would be passed on to younger generations. On the other hand, hosting the events attracted many tourists and could therefore bring money into the communities.
The Powwow tradition continues in full strength to this day, with large events being held nearly every weekend around the country.
V. Native American Radio and the Influence of Rock n' Roll
The consolidation of Native American music throughout the late 1800's and first half of the 1900's led directly to the emergence of several native-themed radio stations in the Midwest and Southwest. Many of these (KGAK out of Gallup NM, KDGK out of Holbrook AZ and KNDN out of Farmington NM) were the first radio stations to be broadcast on the reservations.
The music these stations played was a mixture of traditional, inter-tribal music and modern rock and country songs that were popular at the time. To many on the reservation, this was their first exposure to modern American popular music. The exposure was significant, as Native American musicians immediately began integrating the newly discovered styles with their own, more traditional, secular folk styles.
As a result, Native Radio soon became flooded with Native bands performing covers of popular hits or original material in the rock and country genres. Several of these bands managed to gain moderate commercial success.
XIT, a rock band originally based out of Albuquerque, NM, released a concept album in 1972 entitled Plight of the Redman, about the changes in Native American life since the arrival of Columbus. Below is a recording from that album, "I Was Raised":
Redbone were arguably the most successfull Native American rock band. In 1974, they released "Come and Get Your Love", which peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at #5, spent 18 weeks in the Top 40 and has sold over a million copies in the United States.
Jim Pepper (1941-1992), was a saxophonist, composer and singer of mixed Kaw and Creek heritage. He gained notoriety for combining elements of jazz and Native American music when he wrote "Witchi Tai To", a jazz composition based off of an old peyote song he learned from his grandfather.
The exposure to modern music resulted in the creation of new music styles. Chickenscratch (also known as Waila Music) was a dance style developed by the Tohono O'odhamn in Southern Arizona. The genre evolved out of fiddle bands in the Sonoran Desert, and exposure to European and Mexican styles, including polka, waltzes, schottisch and mazurka. Original bands used percussion, guitar and violin, but by the 1950's, the accordian and saxophone were added as well.
Below is an example of the genre:
The music these stations played was a mixture of traditional, inter-tribal music and modern rock and country songs that were popular at the time. To many on the reservation, this was their first exposure to modern American popular music. The exposure was significant, as Native American musicians immediately began integrating the newly discovered styles with their own, more traditional, secular folk styles.
As a result, Native Radio soon became flooded with Native bands performing covers of popular hits or original material in the rock and country genres. Several of these bands managed to gain moderate commercial success.
XIT, a rock band originally based out of Albuquerque, NM, released a concept album in 1972 entitled Plight of the Redman, about the changes in Native American life since the arrival of Columbus. Below is a recording from that album, "I Was Raised":
Redbone were arguably the most successfull Native American rock band. In 1974, they released "Come and Get Your Love", which peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at #5, spent 18 weeks in the Top 40 and has sold over a million copies in the United States.
Jim Pepper (1941-1992), was a saxophonist, composer and singer of mixed Kaw and Creek heritage. He gained notoriety for combining elements of jazz and Native American music when he wrote "Witchi Tai To", a jazz composition based off of an old peyote song he learned from his grandfather.
The exposure to modern music resulted in the creation of new music styles. Chickenscratch (also known as Waila Music) was a dance style developed by the Tohono O'odhamn in Southern Arizona. The genre evolved out of fiddle bands in the Sonoran Desert, and exposure to European and Mexican styles, including polka, waltzes, schottisch and mazurka. Original bands used percussion, guitar and violin, but by the 1950's, the accordian and saxophone were added as well.
Below is an example of the genre:
VI. Contemporary Native American Music
Today, Native American Music comes in many different forms. In light of the success of the previously mentioned Native-themed radio stations, many established artists, such as Robbie Robertson, Rita Coolidge and Buffy Sainte-Marie began to explore their native roots, developing a genre currently called Contemporary Native American Music.
Robbie Robertson (1944- ), was born in Canada to a Jewish father and Mohawk mother, and was exposed to his Native music during his childhood. While playing in Ronnie Hawkins' backup band, he caught the attention of Bob Dylan, who hired the whole band for his 1965-1966 world tour. Renaming themselves The Band, Robertson and his bandmates became a very successful act of the late 60's and 70's. In 1994, he returned to his roots and began working with a coalition of native musicians called the Red Road Ensemble and produced Music for the Native Americans, an album recorded for a documentary series that brought the music to a mass audience. Below, is a recording they did for the album, entitled "Ghost Dance":
Other members of the Red Road ensemble included female vocal trio Ulali. The trio is of mixed heritage (Tuscarora, Apache and Yaqui) and performs mainly traditional Native American folk songs and styles. Below is a song they recorded in vocables, "Mother":
Native American flute styles have become very popular in the New Age movement and have even been utilised by some modern classical composers. R. Carlos Nakai (1946- ) became one of the most popular Native American Flutists of the late 20th Century. He was the first person to play the cedar flute with a symphony orchestra, in James DeMars' Two World Concerto.
Hundreds of festivals are held around the country each year that showcase lesser-known Native American musicians. Below is an example of Plains Indians blending traditional music with modern instruments:
Among the younger generations of Native musicicans, Hip Hop has become the premier form of musical expression. The emergence of the Internet has provided native rappers with an effective method of distributing their music and fostering the growth of a pan-tribal hip hop community.
Litefoot (1969- ), of mixed Cherokee and Mexican descent, is one of the first Native American rappers to acheive success, calling his style Tribalistic Funk. He founded the Red Vinyl record label, has won six Native American Music Awards and has recently branched out into acting as well. Below is a recording from 1995, Indian Summer:
Rap group Tru Rez Crew have become one of the few Native American rap groups to gain chart success:
RedCloud scored a regional hit in Southern California with "Tapatio":
Robbie Robertson (1944- ), was born in Canada to a Jewish father and Mohawk mother, and was exposed to his Native music during his childhood. While playing in Ronnie Hawkins' backup band, he caught the attention of Bob Dylan, who hired the whole band for his 1965-1966 world tour. Renaming themselves The Band, Robertson and his bandmates became a very successful act of the late 60's and 70's. In 1994, he returned to his roots and began working with a coalition of native musicians called the Red Road Ensemble and produced Music for the Native Americans, an album recorded for a documentary series that brought the music to a mass audience. Below, is a recording they did for the album, entitled "Ghost Dance":
Other members of the Red Road ensemble included female vocal trio Ulali. The trio is of mixed heritage (Tuscarora, Apache and Yaqui) and performs mainly traditional Native American folk songs and styles. Below is a song they recorded in vocables, "Mother":
Native American flute styles have become very popular in the New Age movement and have even been utilised by some modern classical composers. R. Carlos Nakai (1946- ) became one of the most popular Native American Flutists of the late 20th Century. He was the first person to play the cedar flute with a symphony orchestra, in James DeMars' Two World Concerto.
Hundreds of festivals are held around the country each year that showcase lesser-known Native American musicians. Below is an example of Plains Indians blending traditional music with modern instruments:
Among the younger generations of Native musicicans, Hip Hop has become the premier form of musical expression. The emergence of the Internet has provided native rappers with an effective method of distributing their music and fostering the growth of a pan-tribal hip hop community.
Litefoot (1969- ), of mixed Cherokee and Mexican descent, is one of the first Native American rappers to acheive success, calling his style Tribalistic Funk. He founded the Red Vinyl record label, has won six Native American Music Awards and has recently branched out into acting as well. Below is a recording from 1995, Indian Summer:
Rap group Tru Rez Crew have become one of the few Native American rap groups to gain chart success:
RedCloud scored a regional hit in Southern California with "Tapatio":
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